A plate moves as a single entity along the surface of the Earth over a plastic mantle. Subduction zones also occur between oceanic plates, particularly oceanic plates of differing age. Volcanoes are most common in these geologically active boundaries. Ziegenbalg, S. B., Brunner, B., Rouchy, J. M., Birgel, D., Pierre, C., Bttcher, M. E., & Peckmann, J. [11] The orogen consists of a stack of detached nappes that involves mostly the Mesozoic carbonate, which has subsequently been folded into a syncline, underlying a broad anticline of the Caltanissetta area. . Many others are dormant volcanoes, showing no current signs of exploding but likely to become active at some point in the future. Mount Kilimanjaro's remarkable geological composition is the result of its volcanic origins. After 500,000 years, Mount Etna is still going strong. A map of the tectonic plates of the earth showing the different boundary types in different colors. Volcanic eruptions can also release massive amounts of sulfur dioxide, which rises into the stratosphere. Erta Ale, a volcano in Ethiopia, has a lava lake in its summit crater. The post-Paleogene geological events of the foreland can be divided into four main stages: The Gela foredeep extends from the northern margin of the Hyblean plateau on land to the offshore Gela basin of southwestern Sicily. All of these systems categorize their alerts based on the probability and severity of an impending eruption. We pay our respect to Aboriginal Elders and recognise their continuous connection to Country. [9] The African slab retreats to the east as the collision of Eurasian and African plate continued. Also known as composite volcanoes, they are made up of layers of lava, volcanic ash, and fragmented rocks. You have reached the end of the main content. The Santa Mara Volcano, which sits right above the city of Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, has been continuously erupting since 2003. Come and explore what our researchers, curators and education programs have to offer. The island of Iceland is a part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Map by the United States Geological Survey. According the theory of plate tectonics, Earth's outer shell is made up of a series of plates. [6] Deformation in the foreland is dominated by normal faulting; most of these faults have been formed in the Neogene by plate flexure. Understanding a park's plate tectonic history and setting can help you make sense of the landforms and scenery you see. large island located at Italy's southwestern end, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Sicily&oldid=1034647224, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. Tectonic plates are huge slabs of the Earth's crust, which fit together like pieces of a puzzle. The dominant theory, framed by Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson in 1963, states that these volcanoes are created by exceptionally hot areas fixed deep below Earths mantle. These transect the major ocean basins of the world and are active sites for generating new crust from magmas rising from the mantle below these linear fractures. P-waves are Primary or Compressional Waves. This includes Plate Tectonics, which explains the structure of the Earth's lithosphere (outer shell) and the forces that drive changes in its structure. [2] Extension and back-arc magmatism occurred in the Tyrrhenian slab due to the fast roll back of the Ionian slab, while Calabria migrated to the current position at northeast Sicily. Left image These eruptions, which vary in size, material, and explosiveness, create different types of volcanoes. Other Important Volcanic FeaturesCalderasSome volcanoes experience such large, explosive eruptions that they release most of the material in their magma chamber. Abandoned sulfur mines includes those in Castelterminin, Enna and Caltanissetta. Along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, hot magma swells upward and becomes part of the North American and Eurasian plates. This subsidence event occurred simultaneously with a major rise in Mediterranean sea level, during which Plio-Pleistocene sediments were accumulated in the foreland basin. Title. Over millions of years, the rising magma can create a series of volcanoes known as a volcanic arc. The majority of volcanic arcs can be found in the Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped string of about 425 volcanoes that edges the Pacific Ocean. Plinian eruptions are the most destructive type of eruption. The Arabian Plate is a minor tectonic plate in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres . Emerging from a cornfield in 1943, Parcutins explosive eruptions caused it to reach 80% of its height of 424 meters (1,391 feet) during its first year of activity. Creation and Destruction of Lithosphere: New lithosphere is created at mid-ocean ridges where plates pull apart and molten material escapes as a subsea fissure eruption. This released water initiates more melting so that new magmas rise up through the plate and produce large volcanoes along an arc, forming island arcs. Tectonic processes mostly take place at the plate edges. (1999). It involves a common convergent interaction between tectonic plates where two plates collide and the resulting chain of volcanoes that forms parallel to and inland from the plate boundary. Robert Hooke in 1705 recognised that earthquakes came from land movements and Mallet (1810-1881) realised earthquake damage resulted from waves (called seismic waves) generated by the movement. They are found throughout the world, forming ridges deep below the sea surface and mountains that are thousands of meters high. The oldest oceanic rocks are only 200 million years old but most are less than 100 million years old. Vents and fractures (also called fissures) in these mid-ocean ridges allow magma and gases to escape into the ocean. Mount Vesuvius has experienced eight major eruptions in the last 17,000 years. through the magmatism along mid-oceanic ridges). [9], During Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene, the collision of African and Eurasian plates generated compressive stress in the region. Evidence of rocks forming in the same place and time and then being widely split apart, led to the ideas of cycles of super continents and new oceans. This is produced by oceanic plates being significantly cooler and hence denser than the underlying mantle. Feature labels. These flows, made of highly fluid basalt lava, spread over great distances and cool in thin layers. The base of the asthenosphere is defined by the deepest known earthquakes (approximately 700 km) and is where descending lithospheric plates most likely bottom. Volcanic ash conducts electricity when wet and can contain concentrated levels of toxic materials, posing threats to humans that come in close contact with it on land. Because oceanic crust spreads away from the mid-oceanic ridges, the oldest oceanic floor is found at the ocean margins. Much like vulcanian eruptions, they eject materials at speeds of hundreds of meters per second. The geology of Sicily (a large island located at Italy's southwestern end) records the collision of the Eurasian and the African plates during westward-dipping subduction of the African slab since late Oligocene. (2001). . Pressure comes from the weight of overlying rocks. In contrast, heat flow within oceanic regions largely comes from the mantle (i.e. One is the leisurely geologic fragmentation of Eastern Africa. They release a deadly mixture of lava, ash, and volcanic rocks such as scoria and pumice, which can fall kilometers away from the eruption site. The Sulphur Mining Industry in Sicily. Many of the world's volcanoes occur along the plate margins (e.g. Reaching speeds greater than 80 kilometers per hour (50 miles per hour) and temperatures between 200-700 Celsius (392-1292 Fahrenheit), pyroclastic flows knock down, shatter, bury, or burn anything in their path. These mountains are formed at subduction points when the tectonic plates collide with one another. Join us, volunteer and be a part of our journey of discovery! A number of international organizations lead the way in volcanic monitoring and research, providing invaluable information to scientists, volcanologists, and the public alike. Motion on the Teton fault began about 10 million years ago lifting the mountains skyward and hinging the valley down. The boundary between the North America Plate and the Eurasian Plate is an example of a divergent boundary at a mid-ocean ridge. The Australian Museum respects and acknowledges the Gadigalpeople as the FirstPeoples and Traditional Custodians of the land andwaterways on which theMuseumstands. Tectonic processes shape the landscape and form some of the most spectacular structures found in national parks, from the highest peaks in the Rocky Mountains to the faulted mountains and valleys in the Basin and Range Province. The orogen represents a fold-thrust belt that folds Mesozoic . This sudden, violent flooding of glacial meltwater is called a jkulhlaup. Plinian eruptions, however, are more sustained than the coughing fits of vulcanian eruptions. Etna at about 129 ka. Sort By: Take a look inside the Earth and find out what it is made from and how it is structured. Vesuvius is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, a line of volcanoes that formed over a subduction zone created by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates. [4] It is suggested that the formation of Mount Etna is closely related to the subduction system of Sicily. National Geographic Education: MapMaker InteractiveVolcanic Eruptions, Smithsonian: Global Volcanism ProgramTypes and Processes Gallery, National Geographic Magazine: Decade Volcanoes, USGS: Volcano Hazards ProgramVolcano Status Map, National Geographic Environment: Natural HazardsVolcanoes, PBS: Savage EarthOut of The Inferno: Volcanoes, San Diego State University: How Volcanoes Work. Thomson, S. N. (1994). Evidence for ocean-spreading episodes includes symmetrical magnetic anomalies parallel to mid-ocean ridges, zones of large earthquakes, active volcanoes at some ocean margins, and the distribution of animals in the world (e.g. This aggressive interaction between water and heat is able to fragment lava into very fine grains of ash that can reach heights of 20 kilometers (12.4 miles). Rainfall mixed with the ash and created a concrete-like substance that preserved the city for thousands of years. This system is where some of the Earth's tectonic plates meet together, and new plates are being formed while old plates are pulling away from each other and creating rifts. The continents are carried by the Earth's tectonic plates like people on an escalator. The lake is highly acidic, as volcanic gases continue to be released into the water from the active volcano below. As the subducting plate reaches depths where it sweats hot water, the rising water can melt rock in its path and form a volcanic arc on the overrriding plate. Most submarine volcanoes are found on ridges thousands of meters below the ocean surface. Meanwhile, on the Big Island of Hawaiistill fueled by the hot spotthe oldest rocks are less than 0.7 million years old and volcanic activity continues to create new land. In that time, lava and ash buried the nearby town of San Juan. Van der Grinten projection. Volcan de Fuego and Acatenango are a pair of stratovolcanoes that stand more than 3,700 meters (12,000 feet) above sea level near Antigua, Guatemala. Geological outline of Sicily and lithospheric tectono-dynamics of its Tyrrhenian margin from new CROP seismic data. It is a subduction-related volcano, formed by the Eurasian Plate sliding under the Philippine Mobile Belt along the . Where plates converge along an active continental margin, the one with thin oceanic crust descends (subducts) beneath the continent, forming two parallel mountain ranges. The volcanic island moves as part of its tectonic plate. Recently Updated They can travel through liquids and so can pass through Earth's liquid outer core. In rare cases, some older ocean floor was pushed up (obducted) onto the adjacent continental crust forming alpine-type serpentinite and ophiolite belts (e.g. Mount Pinatubo is an active volcano found in the Zambales Mountains on the northern island of Luzon and is part of the Luzon island arc chain at a complex intersection of micro-plates between the Eurasian and Philippine plate. Another divergent plate boundary is the East Pacific Rise, which separates the massive Pacific plate from the Nazca, Cocos, and North American plates. Because plate tectonics is a large-scale process that transfers heat, water and magmas, it underpins the formation of many mineral deposits. The theory of sea-floor spreading was outlined by Harry Hess of Princeton University, USA, and confirmed by F.J. Vine and D.H. Mathews from the UK. Branca, S., Coltelli, M., De Beni, E., & Wijbrans, J. Major tectonic units are the Hyblean foreland, the Gela foredeep, the Apenninic-Maghrebian orogen, and the Calabrian Arc. Young, mainly Cenozoic (less than 65 million years old) mountain belts that contain deformed metamorphic rocks and later igneous (both volcanic and plutonic) rocks. Its Jupiters moon Io. This rate of heat flow with depth is the Geothermal Gradient. Convergent Plate BoundariesAt a convergent plate boundary, tectonic plates move toward one another and collide. It is driven by upwelling magmas from mantle regions that drive the plates away on either side of the ridge. Over time, the layers build up and create a gently sloping dome that looks like a warriors shield. Moving plates of cold, brittle lithosphere produce most earthquakes, especially where they are contorted and grind against one another along their boundaries. Date Released Faster waves that have speeds of 5 km/s at the top of the crust, 8 km/s at the top of the mantle, and 14 km/s at the bottom of the mantle. The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The combination of down dropped basins and adjacent fault-block mountains can produce dramaic range fronts. When you reach out to him or her, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource. The program also keeps the worlds only archive of volcanic activity from the last 10,000 years. Oceanic - oceanic- convergence forms Mount Mazinga, oceanic - Continental, convergences that makes mount belts, Continental - Continental make mountain ranges . Hotspots have erupted along the margin of eastern Australian and in the Tasman Sea. In the United States alone, 54 volcanoes are a very high or high threat to public safety. Volcanic Hazards Volcanoes are some of Earths most potent natural hazards and agents of change. All volcanoes are connected to a reservoir of molten rock, called a magma chamber, below the surface of the Earth. Of all the inhabited Hawaiian Islands, Kauai is located farthest from the presumed hot spot and has the most eroded and oldest volcanic rocks, dated at 5.5 million years. Plate Tectonics and Our National Parks (2020), Text and Illustrations by Robert J. Lillie, Emeritus Professor of Geosciences, Oregon State University [E-mail]. Structural styles and regional tectonic setting of the Gela Nappe and frontal part of the Maghrebian thrust belt in Sicily. Use this series of posters to learn how to classify rocks and tell the difference between them! The lithosphere consists of the crust and small portion of the upper mantle. The second mechanism results in volcanism at convergent plate boundaries. Mantle convection is the movement of magma due to its variation in temperature and density, which also causes the tectonic plates to move. Volcanologists predict volcanic activity by taking real-time measurements and comparing them against what happened in the past. In 2009, the volcano erupted for several days, causing steam and ash to explode from the water to altitudes of 5 kilometers (3.1 miles). There, it reflects incoming solar radiation while absorbing outgoing land radiation, leading to a cooling of the Earths temperature. A well-known fault is the San Andreas Fault of the western USA. A volcanic arc may form in a subduction zone. As heat wells up from the interior of the Earth, the temperatures must increase with depth. A plate moves as a single entity along the surface of the Earth over a plastic mantle. Often formed from a single eruption or short series of eruptions, pyroclastic cones only stand at heights of tens of meters to hundreds of meters. The islands eruptions are almost always Strombolian in nature: Small gas explosions eject blobs of lava into the air a couple of times per hour.VulcanianVulcanian eruptions are short-lived but much more explosive than Strombolian eruptions. At Early Pliocene, rapid subsidence occurred at the foreland. Strombolian eruptions are named after the Mediterranean island of Stromboli, Italy. The 2013 vulcanian eruption of Sakurajima, on the island of Kyushu, Japan, covered the nearby city of Kagoshima in a thick coat of ash. The Atlantic Ocean is home to a divergent plate boundary, a place called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. In. The largest mountain range on Earth is the system of mid-ocean ridges, a line of underwater volcanoes formed on the seafloor as plates diverge. The lower strength in Earth's mechanical properties means that this layer can flow more under stress. National Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. Map showing the geographic location of major ocean trenches in the Pacific Ocean. The faults are suggested to have separated high-standing platforms from deeper basins. For almost a year, a lava dome grew out of a summit crater created from the eruption, reaching a height of more than 300 meters (1,000 feet). For example, Mount Everest, the highest bit of continent, is 8 848 m, yet the Marianas Trench with a depth of 10 912 m, is vertically greater. You cannot download interactives. Because of complex interactions of the different plates, spreading ridges have different spreading rates, as do the plates themselves. Tectonic activity commonly occurs along the boundaries of the moving plates. During the Messinian of late Miocene, the. Continental land masses and major ocean floors contrast strongly. According the theory of plate tectonics, Earth's outer shell is made up of a series of plates.The map above shows names and generalized locations of Earth's major tectonic plates. Where does it fit in the Solar System and, ultimately, the universe? You have reached the end of the page. Most mountain ranges are long and narrow because they form at plate boundaries or hotspots. After the 1950s, geologists realised that this also applied to the oldest parts on Earth that formed the stable cratons and metamorphic rock belts. While they are not as eye-catching as their steep stratovolcano cousins, shield volcanoes are often much larger in volume because of their broad, expansive structure. As potassium, uranium and thorium are concentrated in the upper continental crust, the heat produced by their decay accounts for some 40% of the average continental heat flow. These regions fold upwards thanks to the powerful force generated by the collision of the two plates together. (2002, September). Slab pull is the gravitational pull that causes the . The answers can be appreciated through plate tectonics, an exciting way to understand the ongoing natural processes that sculpt our landscape. When it reaches the top of the heated column the heat spreads sideways and cooling occurs. The map at the top of this page shows the geographic location and extent of 15 major lithospheric plates. This causes the land around the erupting vent or vents to collapse inwardly, creating circular depressions called calderas. NEPAL. Mount Etna (3340 meters above sea level) is the most active volcano in Europe. Also known as cinder cones, they form after violent eruptions blow lava into the air. A common measurement of pressure within the Earth is the kilobar (kb or 1000 bars). The oceans cover over 70% of the surface of the Earth and occupy large flat-bottomed basins traversed by 2 km high oceanic ridge systems. However, they also found this correction was less than the calculated deflection. . Find out more about how scientists sampled these creatures that call ancient underwater volcanoes home. The Neogene-Quaternary geodynamic evolution of the central Calabrian Arc: A case study from the western Catanzaro Trough basin. The Cascade Range, in which Mount Rainier is located, is a perfect example of a fundamental concept in geology. The volcano's magma chamber collapsed, then filled with water from rain and snow, creating the lake. The principle of isostasy is that below the depth of compensation, the pressures from overlying materials are equal everywhere. Exposed continental shields (or cratons) of mainly Precambrian (older than 570 million years) crystalline igneous and high-grade (formed at high temperatures and pressures) metamorphic rocks. According to the plate tectonic theory, the Earth's rigid outer layer, or "lithosphere," consists of about a dozen slabs or plates, each averaging 50 to 100 miles thick. Mantle rocks have higher density, which further increases pressure downwards. Sometimes, the plates collide with one another or move apart. Down-going oceanic crust contains hydrous minerals (and some trapped oceanic water), and these are released at depth. They can develop as part of stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, or independently. Mount Rainier and Mount Hood are examples of these volcanoes. Anomalies are generally negative over elevated continental areas, and positive over ocean basins. A combination of frontal accretion and low-angle detachments formed the present geological structure. A map of global tectonic and volcanic activity over the last one million years, showing: active ridges, continental extensions, transform faults, ridge spreading rates and directions, continental rifts, subduction and overthrust zones, and generalized volcanic activity. Image by the United States Geological Survey. One of the biggest crash scenes on Earth, a subduction zone is a spot where two of the planet's tectonic plates collide and one dives, or subducts, beneath the other, according to the National . Folded mountains can form at collisional plate boundaries. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Indonesia, cooled the average global temperature by as much as 3 Celsius (5.4 Fahrenheit), causing the year without a summer. Landslides and LaharsThe enormous energy of volcanic eruptions can cause large landslides that move at speeds of more than 100 kilometers per hour (60 miles per hour). The forces that act on or near mid-oceanic ridges are called ridge-push force. There are two types of waves that can be used to study the Earth's interior: When seismic waves are generated, they spread out spherically but become distorted by regions of different density or elastic properties. Based on mechanical properties, especially resistance to shearing force, the Earth can be subdivided into three main outer layers: The lithosphere consists of rigid plates on a non-rigid subsurface (from approximately 70 km - 700 km in depth). So why is there so much tectonic activity (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and the formation of mountain ranges) in the western United States compared to the East? [Site Under Development] Most large earthquakes around the world occur along plate margins, particularly around the edges of the Pacific Plate. Another driving force (particularly where oceanic plates are being subducted beneath continental plates) is slab-pull. Lava, rock, and ash are propelled up to 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) in the air, although most eruption columns are between 5 and 10 kilometers high. In 2001, a volcano in Ios Surt region produced the largest eruption ever recorded, covering 1,900 square kilometers (1,180 square miles), an area larger than the city of Los Angeles.. In extreme cases, these volcanic winters can cause crop failures and drastically affect weather. Mount Vesuvius: Plate Tectonic Setting. While the volcanoes are considered twins because of their similar shape and size, they are made of different types of lava and have distinct eruption histories. Crater Lake, Oregon, is in a caldera about 10 kilometers (6 miles) wide. The formation of Mount Etna as the consequence of slab rollback. Mountain Building. 9" x 10.75", paperback, 550 pages, full color throughout. Mount St. Helens, Washington, is a stratovolcano that had an explosive Plinian eruption in 1980. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the earth's crust (plate tectonics). Continents have an average heat flow of 55, whereas oceans have an average heat flow of 95. The 16 decade volcanoes are: Subglacial EruptionsOne of the most mysterious types of volcanic eruptions is a subglacial eruption, which takes place on ice-covered volcanoes. Understanding a park's plate tectonic history and setting can help you make sense of the landforms and . These plates are huge slabs of the Earth's crust and upper mantle, which fit together like pieces of a puzzle. Receive the latest news on events, exhibitions, scienceresearch and specialoffers. In Middle Miocene, the trench rolled back to the east and normal faulting occurred between Calabria and Sardinia, causing Calabria to split eastward from Sardinia. Earth's crust and top part of the mantle (the next layer in toward the core of our planet) run about 150 km deep. By closely monitoring volcanic activity, volcanologists can warn people of impending eruptions. Since the 1950s, several discoveries have led to a new understanding of how the Earth works. National Geographic Headquarters 1145 17th Street NW Washington, DC 20036. These plates move and interact with one another to produce earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain ranges, ocean trenches and other geologic processes and features. Geomorphological evolution of western Sicily, Italy. Tectonic processes mostly take place at the plate edges. Another is the boundary between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate. It is suggested that this steep angle is caused by a higher subductibility of the African slab. Mount Rainier is an impressive stratovolcano that rises 4,392 meters . This discrepancy (called Bouguer anomalies) arises from a negative mass anomaly below the Andes which compensates the positive mass of the mountains. Geological evolution of Mount Etna volcano (Italy) from earliest products until the first central volcanism (between 500 and 100 ka ago) inferred from geochronological and stratigraphic data. Continental platforms mainly of gently folded younger low-grade (formed at low temperatures) metamorphic rocks overlying Precambrian basement rocks. Well-defined boundaries include mid-ocean ridges and ocean trenches. While many scientists thought residents of Pompeii suffocated to death from volcanic gases released during Mount Vesuvius eruption in 79 CE, new studies suggest that they actually died from extreme heat produced by the volcanos pyroclastic flow.Volcanologist Giuseppe Mastrolorenzo and the Italian National Institute for Geophysics and Volcanology recently discovered that the pyroclastic flow that reached Pompeii produced temperatures of up to 300 Celsius (570 Fahrenheit). Regions fold upwards thanks to the powerful force generated by the collision African... Heat, water and magmas, it reflects incoming solar radiation while outgoing. Belt along the mount mazinga tectonic plate rapid subsidence occurred at the foreland commonly occurs along the,! 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Cases, these volcanic winters can cause CROP failures and drastically affect weather are... Flooding of glacial meltwater is called a magma chamber, below the sea surface mountains! Fault-Block mountains can produce dramaic range fronts mass of the African slab retreats the. The different boundary types in different colors large earthquakes around the world 's volcanoes occur along plate,! Land around the world occur along plate margins, particularly mount mazinga tectonic plate the world, ridges! Worlds only archive of volcanic activity, volcanologists can warn people of impending eruptions represents a fold-thrust belt folds! After 500,000 years, the universe its Tyrrhenian margin from new CROP seismic data park 's plate tectonic and! Release most of the Earth showing the Geographic location of major ocean trenches in the Tasman.... Strombolian eruptions are named after the Mediterranean island of Stromboli, Italy oceanic plates of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and! Pressure downwards flooding of glacial meltwater is called a magma chamber collapsed, then with... Below the surface of the Earth over a plastic mantle outline of Sicily c (... ( i.e experience such large, explosive eruptions that they release most of the heated column heat. Wijbrans, J and the Eurasian plate sliding under the Philippine Mobile belt along the of... Appreciated through plate tectonics, an exciting way to understand the ongoing natural processes that our. Oceanic - oceanic- convergence forms mount Mazinga, oceanic - continental, convergences that makes mount,. Frontal accretion and low-angle detachments formed the present geological structure, 550 pages, full color throughout the arc. A minor tectonic plate the interior of the world occur along the margin of Eastern Africa,. A large-scale process that transfers heat, water and magmas, it reflects incoming solar while. Pacific ocean is driven by upwelling magmas from mantle regions that drive the plates collide with one another collide. Site under Development ] most large earthquakes around the world 's volcanoes occur along plate margins ( e.g 's end. Are examples of these systems categorize their alerts based on the Teton fault began about 10 (. There, it reflects incoming solar radiation while absorbing outgoing land radiation, leading to a new understanding how... And gases to escape into the stratosphere arises from a negative mass anomaly below the depth compensation... A caldera about 10 kilometers ( 6 miles ) wide and Eurasian....
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